Ady, R. (1967). An investigation of the relationship between illuminated advertising signs and expressway accidents. Traffic Safety Research Review, 3, 9-11.
Akagi, Y., Seo, T, and Motoda, Y. (1996). "Influence of Visual Environments on Visibility of Traffic Signs." Transportation Research Record, No.1553, pp 52-58. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Alexander, G.J., & Lunenfeld, H. (1972). “Satisfying Motorists Need for Information.” Traffic Engineering 43(1), pp. 46-70, October.
Andersen, C. (2008a). Personal communication.
Andersen, C. (2008b). Personal communication.
Andreassen, D.C. (1984). Traffic accidents and advertising signs. Victoria, Australia: Australian Road Research Board.
AUSTROADS (1988). Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice. Part 8. Traffic Control Devices.
Beijer, D. D., Smiley, A., & Eizenman, M. (2004). Observed driver glance behavior at roadside advertising. Transportation Research Record, No. 1899, 96-103.
Beijer, D.D. (2002). Driver distraction due to roadside advertising. University of Toronto, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering.
Bergeron, J. (1996a). “An Evaluation of the Influence of Roadside Advertising on Road Safety.” Document prepared for the Ministere des Transports, Government of Quebec.
Bergeron, J. (1996b). Road Safety Survey Regarding the Effects of the Billboards that Centre RCA SEC Has Proposed to Install in Proximity to the Ville-Marie Expressway. Document prepared for the Ministere des Transports, Government of Quebec.
Black Hammer Productions (Undated). New York Magazine – Fresh Direct’s Digital Billboard Animation. Accessed at:
Boersema, T., Zwaga, H.J.G. & Adams, A.S. (1989). Conspicuity in realistic scenes: an eye movement measure. Applied Ergonomics, 20(4), 267-273.
Brown, B. (1989). Effects of Distracting Stimuli on Instantaneous Tracking Performance. Australian Road Research Board Internal Report AIR 459-1.
Business Editors (2002). AdSpace networks powers North America’s largest flat screen outdoor digital billboard. Business Wire, December 16th.
Cairney, P., & Gunatillake, T. (2000). Roadside advertising signs – A review of the literature and recommendations for policy. ARRB Transport Research. Contract Report for RACV (Royal Automobile Club of Victoria).
Capka, JR. (2005). “Information: Optional Use of Acknowledgement Signs on Highway Rights-of-Way.” Washington, DC: FHWA Policy Memorandum.
Chan, E., Pradhan, A.K., Knodler, M.A., Pollatsek, A., & Fisher, D.L. (2008) Evaluation on a Driving Simulator of the Effect of Drivers’ Eye Behaviors from Distractions inside and Outside the Vehicle. Human Factors (in publication).
Chapman, P., & Underwood, G. (1998). Visual search of driving situations: danger and experience. Perception 27), 951-964.
Clark, O.J., & Davies, S.P. (2007). Ads on the Road: A Study into the Effects of Perceptual Load and Expertise on Reaction Time to Road Signs. Hull, England: University of Hull.
Crundall, D., Underwood, G., & Chapman, P. (1999). Driving experience and the functional field of view. Perception (28), 1075-1087.
Crundall, D., Van Loon, E., & Underwood, G. (2006). Attraction and distraction of attention with roadside advertisements. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 38 (4), 671–677.
CTC & Associates. (2003). Electronic Billboards and Highway Safety. Transportation Synthesis Report, Bureau of Highway Operations, Division of Transportation Infrastructure Development, Wisconsin Department of Transportation.
Department for Communalities and Local Government (DCLG) (2007). Circular 03/2007, Town and Country Planning (Control of Advertisements), cited in Speirs, et al (2008).
Department for Transit (DfT) (2001). Traffic Signs Manual, cited in Speirs, et al, 2008.
Dingus, T.A., Klauer, S.G., Neale, V.L., Petersen, A., Lee, S.E., Sudweeks, J., Perez, M.A., Hankey, J., Gupta, S., Bucher, C. Doerzaph, Z.R., Jermeland, J., & Knipling, R. (2006). The 100 Car Naturalistic Driving Study, Phase II – Results of the 100 Car Field Experiment. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
du Toit, E.M., and Coetzee, J.L. (2001). Advertising Boards on or Visible from National Roads. 20th South African Transport Conference: Meeting the Transport Challenges in Southern Africa. (Unpaginated).
Dudek, C.L., Schrock, S.D., & Ullman, B.R. (2007). “License plate and telephone numbers in changeable message sign AMBER alert messages.” Transportation Research Record 1959. Cited in Dudek, 2008. Available online at: http://trb.metapress.com/content/16vkv54401179h03/fulltext.pdf
Dudek, C.L. (2008). “Changeable Message Sign Displays During Non-Incident, Non-Roadwork Periods: A Synthesis of Highway Practice.” NCHRP Synthesis 383. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.
Dunthorne, A. (1982). The Luminance of Traffic and Advertising Signs –a Comparison of Standards. Public Lighting Journal, Institution of Lighting Engineers, Rugby, England.
Edquist, J. (2009a). Visual Clutter in the Road Environment. Human Factors Workshop Presentation. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board 88th Annual Meeting.
Edquist, J.(2009b). The effects of visual clutter on driving performance. Victoria, Australia: Monash University Accident Research Centre. Available online at: http://arrow.monash.edu.au/hdl/1959.1/64951 .
Eriksen, B.A., & Eriksen, C.W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Percept. Psychophys. (16), 143-149.
Farbry, J., Wochinger, K., Shafer, T., Owens, N, and Nedzesky, A. (2001). Research review of potential safety effects of electronic billboards on driver attention and distraction (Final Report). Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
FHWA (1998). Older driver highway design handbook. Publication No. FHWA-RD-97-135. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
Finnish Road Administration (2004). Effects of Roadside Advertisements on Road Safety. Helsinki: Finnish Road Administration, Finnra Internal Reports 25/2004.
Fisher, D. (2009). Presentation to the Human Factors Workshop on Visual Clutter in the Road Environment. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board 88th Annual Meeting.
Garvey, P.M. (1996). “What message are you sending? Improving sign visibility.” Paper presented at the ATSSA 26th Annual Convention and Traffic Expo.
Garvey, P.M., Thompson-Kuhn, B., & Pietrucha, M.T. (1995). Sign Visibility Literature Review: Final Report No. PTI 9604. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University.
Gasson, A.J., & Peters, G.S. (1965). The effect of concentration upon the apparent size of the visual field in binocular vision. The Optician 148, 660-665; 149, 5-12.
Green, M. (2006). Is the moth effect real? Accident Reconstruction, May/June, pp. 18-19.
Guerra, R.D. & Braga, M.G.deC. (1998). “Guidelines for the display of advertising signs within the road reserve in Brazil.” Transport Policy(5). 127-137.
Halsted, C.P. (1993). “Brightness, luminance, and confusion.” Information Display, March.
Hanowski, R. (2009) Studying Driver Distraction with Naturalistic Driving. Presentation to the TRB Human Factors Workshop on Visual Clutter, January 11th.
Hendricks, D.L., Fell, J.C., & Freedman, M. (1999). The relative frequency of unsafe driving acts in serious crashes. DTNH22-94-C-05020. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
Holahan, C.J. (1979). An Evaluation of the Utilization of Psychological Knowledge Concerning Potential Roadside Distracters. Research Report 64, Texas Office of Traffic Safety. Austin: The University of Texas at Austin.
Holahan, C.J., Culler, R.E., & Wilcox, B.L. (1978). Effects of visual distraction on reaction time in a simulated traffic environment. Human Factors, 20(4), 409-413.
Horrey, W. J., and Wickens, C. D. (2007). In-vehicle glance duration: Distributions, tails and a model of crash risk. Proceedings of the 2007 Transportation Research Board Meeting. Washington, DC: TRB. http://hmil.cs.drexel.edu/papers/CSC02.pdf.
IESNA. Report No. RP-19-01. (Cited in Andersen, 2008a).
Johnson, A. & Cole, B. (1976). Investigations of Distraction by Irrelevant Information. Australian Road Research, 6(3), pp. 3-23.
Kempton, W. (2008). Letter to The Honorable Mary E. Peters, Secretary of Transportation, August 27.
Klauer, S.G., Neale, V.L., Dingus, T.A., Ramsey, D, & Sudweeks, J. (2005). Driver inattention: A contributing factor to crashes and near-crashes. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 49th Annual Meeting, 1922-1926. Santa Monica, California: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Klauer, S.G., Dingus, T.A., Neale, V.L., Sudweeks, J.D. and Ramsey, D.J. (2006a). The Impact of Driver Inattention on Near-Crash/Crash Risk: An Analysis using the 100-car Naturalistic Driving Study Data. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Report No. DOT HS 810 594.
Klauer, S.G., Sudweeks, J., Hickman, J.S., & Neale, V.L. (2006b). How Risky is it? An Assessment of the Relative Risk of Engaging in Potentially Unsafe Driving Behaviors. Washington, DC: AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.
Kuhn, B.T. (1999). The impact of illumination on typical on-premise sign visibility. ITE Journal (69)1, 64.
Lansdown, T.C. (2004). Considerations in Evaluation and Design of Roadway Signage from the Perspective of Driver Attentional Allocation. In: The Human Factors of Transport Signs, C. Castro and T. Horberry, Eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Lazarus, J. (2008). Literature review: The use of commercial advertising on large scale electronic billboards for highways and their relation to driver safety and driver distraction. Salem: Oregon Department of Transportation Research Unit.
Lee, S.E., Olsen, E.C.B., & DeHart, M.C. (2003). Driving performance in the presence and absence of billboards (Executive Summary). Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Center for Crash Causation and Human Factors.
Lee, S.E., McElheny, M.J. & Gibbons, R. (2007). Driver performance and digital billboards: Final Report. Prepared for Foundation for Outdoor Advertising Research and Education. Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Center for Automotive Safety Research.
Lehtimaki, R. (1974). The effect of billboards (roadside advertising) on traffic safety. (Translated from the original Finnish). Helsinki: Liikenneturva.
Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, (RPI) 2008. Technical Memorandum: Evaluation of Billboard Sign Luminances. Prepared for New York State Department of Transportation.
Lloyd, M. (2008). Personal communication.
Logan, G.D. (1996). The CODE theory of visual attention: an integration of space-based and object-based attention. Psychol. Rev. (103) 603-649.
Luoma, J. (1984). Do advertising signs decrease traffic safety? (Translated from the original Finnish). Liikenne, 2(2), 34-37.
Luoma, J. (1988). Drivers’ eye fixations and perceptions. In A.G. Gale, M.H. Freeman, C.M. Haslegrave, P. Smith and S.P. Taylor (eds.), Vision in Vehicles-II, 231-237. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Malone, J.L. (1996). “Legal Opinion on the Erection of Billboards on The Right-of-Way of an Interstate Highway by a State.” FHWA Policy Memorandums – Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. December 19th.
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 2003. Available at: http://mutcd/fhwa.dot.gov/ .
Marocco, M. (2008a). Letter transmitting “Outdoor Advertising Regulations – 17 NYCRR Part 150), April 15.
Marocco, M. (2008b). Letter transmitting “Outdoor Advertising Regulations – 17 NYCRR Part 150), July 18.
Martens, M. (2009). “Conceptual Guidelines for Roadside Distractions” Presentation to the Human Factors Workshop on Visual Clutter in the Road Environment. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board 88th Annual Meeting.
Martinovich, S. (2008). Letter to Ms. Susan Klekar, Nevada Division Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, October 10.
Michigan State Highway Department (1952). Accident Experiences in Relation to Road and Roadside Features. Lansing, Michigan: Author.
Minnesota Department of Highways (1951). Minnesota Rural Trunk Highway Accident, Access Point and Advertising Sign Study. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Author.
Molino, J.A., Wachtel, J., Farbry, J.E., Hermosillo, M.B., & Granda, T.M. (2009) “The effects of commercial electronic variable message signs (CEVMS) on driver attention and distraction: An update.” Report No. FHWA-HRT-09-018. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
Mourant, R.R., & Rockwell, T.H. (1970). Mapping eye movement patterns to the visual scene in driving: An exploratory study. Human Factors 12(1), 81-87.
Muttart, J., Fisher, D.L., Knodler, M., & Pollatsek, A. (2007). Driving simulator evaluation of driver performance during hands-free cell phone operation in a work zone: Driving without a clue. Transportation Research Record, 2018, 9-14.
New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), 2008a). Proposed Criteria for Regulating Off-Premise Changeable Electronic Variable Message Sings (CEVMS) in New York State – Draft. April 11.
New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), 2008b). Criteria for Regulating Off-Premise Changeable Electronic Variable Message Sings (CEVMS) in New York State – Draft. July 14.
Noyce, D.A., & Bentzen, B.L. (2005). Determination of pedestrian push-button activation duration at typical signalized intersections. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1939, 63-68.
Olsson, S. & Burns, P.C. (2000). "Measuring Driver Visual Distraction with a Peripheral Detection Task." Obtained from August 2000 The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Driver Distraction Internet Forum on the World Wide Web.
OAAA (2008). Digital Technology Billboards Today – Technology with a Purpose. Washington, DC: Outdoor Advertising Association of America, Inc.
OAAA (Undated a). Regulating Digital Billboards. Washington, DC: Outdoor Advertising Association of America, Inc.
OAAA (Undated b). State Changeable Message Chart – Source: OAAA State Statute Matrix. Washington, DC: Outdoor Advertising Association of America, Inc.
OAAA (Undated c). “Brightness Criteria.” Obtained from the web at:
Perception Research Services, Inc. (1983). The Visibility Achieved by Outdoor Advertising: A Comprehensive Evaluation. Washington, DC: Outdoor Advertising Association of America, Inc.
Peters, M.E. (2003). “Information: Interim Policy on Acknowledgment Signs on Highway Rights-of-Way.” FHWA Policy Memorandums – Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. October 29th.
Pottier, A. (1988). Influence of the Conspicuous Nature of Road Signs, on the Surroundings and of the Functional Field of Vision to Facilitate their Observation. Proceedings of the International Ergonomics Association 10th International Congress, (pp. 581-583). Sidney, Australia.
PPG (1992). Outdoor Advertising Control. PPG19 (cited in Speirs, et al (2008).
Rahimi, M., Briggs, R. and Thorn, D. (1990). A Field Evaluation of Driver Eye and Head Movement Strategies toward Environmental Targets and Distracters. Applied Ergonomics, 21(4), pp. 267-274.
Road Safety Committee (2006). Inquiry into Driver Distraction - Report of the Road Safety Committee on the Inquiry into Driver Distraction. Parliamentary Paper No. 209 Session 2003-2006. Victoria, Australia: Parliament of Victoria.
Rockwell, T.H. (1988). Spare visual capacity in driving-revisited: New empirical results for an old idea. Vision in Vehicles II. A.G. Gale et al., Editors. Elsevier Science Publishers BV.
Schieber, F., & Goodspeed IV, C.H. (1997). Nighttime Conspicuity of Highway Signs as a Function of Sign Brightness, Background Complexity and Age of Observer. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Schimmoller, V.F. (2001). “Information: Adopt-a-Highway Signs – Interpretation (II-477(I) – “Advertising on Adopt-a-Highway Signs”). FHWA Policy Memorandums – Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. April 27th.
Sculley, S. (2009). “Digital Sign Ordinance – Temporary Pilot Program Update.” City of San Antonio, City Manager’s Office, Interdepartmental Correspondence Sheet.
Shinar, D. (2007). Traffic Safety and Human Behavior. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Shurr, K.S., Spargo, B.W., Huff, R.R. & Pesti, G. (2005). Predicted 95th percentile speeds on curved alignments approaching a stop. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1912,1-10. Washington, DC: TRB.
Simpson, D. (2008). Personal communication.
Skeen, D. (2007). “Eye-tracking device lets billboards know when you look at them.” Wired, June 12th.
Slobodzian, J. (2007) “Digital billboards coming this way.” Philadelphia Inquirer, E01, August 21st.
Smiley, A., Persaud, B., Bahar, G., Mollett, C., Lyon, C., Smahel, T., & Kelman, W.L. (2005). Traffic Safety Evaluation of Video Advertising Signs. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1937, pp. 105-112. Washington, DC: TRB.
Smiley, A., Smahel, T., and Eizenman, M. (2004). Impact of Video Advertising on Driver Fixation Patterns. Transportation Research Record 1899, 76-83.
Stutts, J.C., Reinfurt, D.W., Staplin, L., & Rodgman, E.A. (2001) The Role of Driver Distraction in Traffic Crashes. Report Prepared for AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Washington, DC.
Speirs, S., Winmill, A., & Kazi, T. (2008). The Impact of Roadside Advertising on Driver Distraction: Final Report. Basingstoke, Hampshire, England: WSP Development and Transportation.
St. Croix County Planning and Zoning Department (2007). St. Croix County Code of Ordinances – Land Use and Development – Subchapter VI, Section 17.65, Sign Regulation. Hudson, Wisconsin. Author. (Accessed from the web at www.co.saint-croix.wi.us
SWOV (2006). Fact sheet Advertising and information alongside the road. Leidschendam, The Netherlands: SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research.
Tantala, M.W. & Tantala, P.J. (2005). An examination of the relationship between advertising signs and traffic safety. Paper presented at the 84th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Tantala, A.M. & Tantala, M.W. (2007). A study of the relationship between digital billboards and traffic safety in Cuyahoga County, Ohio. Washington, DC: The Foundation for Outdoor Advertising Research and Education (FOARE).
Tantala, M.W. (2007). Letter to John P. Campbell, P.E. Director, Right-of-Way Division, Texas Department of Transportation. December 5th.
TERS (2002). “Guide to the Management of Roadside Advertising, Edition 1.0.” TERS Product No. 80-500. Queensland Government, Department of Main Roads.
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (2006). “Request for Proposal for the Performance of Expert Professional Services – Safety Review of Proposed Outdoor Advertising Installations.” RFP No. 10335. June 1st.
Theeuwes, J., Kramer, A.F., Hahn, S., & Irwin, D.E. (1998). “Our eyes do not always go where we want them to go: Capture of the eyes by new objects.” Psychological Science, 9, 5, 370-385.
Theeuwes, J., Kramer, A.F., Hahn, S., Irwin, D.E., & Zelinsky, G.J. (1999). “Influence of Attentional Capture on Oculomotor Control.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, 6, 1595-1608.
Transportation Environment Consultants (TEC), 1989. Review of Roadside Advertising Signs. Thornleigh, NSW: Roads and Traffic Authority of NSW.
Treat, J.R., Tumbas, N.S., McDonald, S.T., Shinar, D., Hume, R.D., Mayer, R.E., Stanisfer, R.L., & Castellan, N.J. (1979). Tri-Level Study of the Causes of Traffic Accidents. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
Ullman, B.R., Dudek, C.L., Trout, N.D. & Schoeneman, S.K. (2005). AMBER Alert, Disaster Response and Evacuation, Planned Special Events, Adverse Weather and Environmental Conditions, and Other Messages for Display on Dynamic Message Signs. Report No. FHWA/TX/-06/0-4023-4. College Station, Texas: Texas Transportation Institute. (Cited in Dudek, 2008). Available online at: http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-4023-4.pdf
Vossler, B. (1997). Burma Shave: The Rhymes, The Signs, The Times. St. Cloud, MN: North Star Press.
Wachtel, J. and Netherton, R. (1980). Safety and Environmental Design Considerations in the Use of Commercial Electronic Variable-Message Signage. Report No. FHWA-RD-80-051. Washington, D.C: Federal Highway Administration.
Wallace, B. (2003a). Driver distraction by advertising: genuine risk or urban myth? Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer 156 Issue ME3, 185-190.
Wallace, B. (2003b). External-to-Vehicle Driver Distraction. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive Social Research – Transport Research Planning Group.
Weiner, S. (1979) Review of report. Unpublished Internal Memorandum. Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration, Environmental Design and Control Division.
Wierwille, W.W. (1993). Visual and manual demands of in-car controls and displays. In B. Peacock and W. Karwowski (Eds.), Automotive Ergonomics, 299-320. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
Wierwille, W.W. & Tijerina, L. (1998). Modeling the relationship between driver in-vehicle visual demands and accident occurrence. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Vision in Vehicles. In A.G. Gale, I. D. Brown, C.M. Haslegrave and S.P. Taylor, (Eds.) Elsevier Science Publishers BV.
Wikman, A., Nieminen, T., & Summala, H. (1998). Driving experience and time-sharing during in-car tasks on roads of different width. Ergonomics, 4242(3), 358-372.
Wildervanck, C. (1989). De berm als reclamemedium?In: Verkeerskunde (41)1, 12-13.
Wisconsin Department of Transportation District 2, Freeway Operations Unit (1994). Milwaukee County Stadium Variable Message Sign Study: Impacts of an Advertising Variable Message Sign on Freeway Traffic
Wojdyla, B. (2009). “How to hack an electronic road sign.” Jalopnik.com. Accessed at:
Young, E. (1984). “Visibility achieved by outdoor advertising.” Journal of Advertising Research 24(4), 19-21.
Young, K., & Regan, M. (2005). Road Safety Implications of Driver Distraction. In Australasian Road Safety Handbook, Volume 2, pp. 92-100. Sydney: Austroads
Young, M.S., & Mahfoud, J.M. (2007). Driven to Distraction: Determining the Effects of Roadside Advertising on Driver Attention. Final report of a Study Funded by The Rees Jeffreys Road Fund. West London: Brunel University.
Zeigarnik, B.V. (1967). “On finished and unfinished tasks.” In W.D. Ellis (Ed.) A sourcebook of Gestalt psychology. New York: Humanities Press.
Zillmer, K. (2008). Oakdale ready for latest billboards – City passes dynamic sign ordinance. Oakdale Lake Elmo Review.
Zwahlen, H.T. (1988). Safety aspects of cellular telephones in automobiles. (Paper No. 88058). Paper presented at the International Symposium on Automotive Technology and Automation (ISATA), Florence, Italy.
